A clinical cases of tuberculosis in pheasants (Phasianus colchicus) with pathomorphological and molecular verification
Abstract
Tuberculosis remains one of the leading infectious diseases worldwide, persistently imposing a significant impact on the health of humans and animals. Tuberculosis is a prominent cause of increasing morbidity and mortality even despite achiev e ments in human and veterinary medicine and continuous introduction of novel medical technologies for the control of infectious processes into practice. For this reason, this disease must be considered a multivector problem. However, the consequences of avian tuberculosis for public health have been studied poorly. The relevance of such research is highlighted by the fact that most poultry farmers lack awareness of the spread of avian tuberculosis and its implications, the sources of this infection, its routes of transmission, and zoonotic potential. Therefore, the World Tuberculosis Day is observed annualy to raise awareness of this deadly ailment. The article presents clinical cases of tuberculosis in pheasants ( Phasianus colchicus ) from two private farms in Ukraine, focusing on diagnostic peculiarities and zoonotic importance of the disease. Mycobacterioses continue to be a relevant problem for both domestic and wild birds, playing an important role in the epizootiology of tuberculosis. The paper provides insights into the stages of diagnosing, presented as a complex study with identification of the pathogen using molecular-genetic diagnostics. We provide a detailed pathomorphological description of the changes, taking into account macro- and microscopic peculiarities of the course of tuberculosis in pheasants. The objectives of the study were analysis, elucidation, and systematiz a tion of the pathomorphologic peculiarities of tuberculosis in pheasants using a complex of classical and modern methods of diagnostics. For these purposes, we examined 12 corpses of pheasants aged 1 .0– 1.5 years from private farms in Ukraine. A complex approach was employed, combining pathoanatomical, histological, bacteriological, and molecular-genetic methods. Histological preparations were stained with hematoxylin and eosin, and also using the Ziehl–Neelsen method, and the identif i cation of the pathogen was performed using Real-Time PCR. Macroscopically, we determined a notable cachexia and genera l ized granulomatous inflammations of the lungs, liver, spleen, and intestine. Histologically, we found typical tuberculosis gran u lomas with central necrosis, epithelioid cells, and giant Langerhans giant cells. Ziehl–Neelsen stain confirmed the presence of acid-fast mycobacteria. The PCR method established the presence of Mycobacterium avium in the tissues of the internal organs. The yielded results indicate a generalized course of tuberculosis with systemic spread of the pathogen. The study highlights the high diagnostic value of a complex approach involving morphological and molecular-genetic methods, and also underscores the epizootiological and zoonotic significance of avian tuberculosis.References
Algammal, A. M., Hashem, H. R., Al-Otaibi, A. S., Alfifi, K. J., El-Dawody, E. M., Mahrous, E., Hetta, H. F., El-Kholy, A. W., Ramadan, H., & El-Tarabili, R. M. (2021). Emerging MDR-Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium in house-reared domestic birds as the first report in Egypt. BMC Microbiology, 21(1), 237.
Babazadeh, D., Razavi, S. A., Abd El-Ghany, W. A., & Cotter, P. (2022). Vitamin D deficiency in farm animals: A review. Farm Animal Health and Nutrition, 1(1), 10–16.
Bekele, A., Gebreselassie, N., Ashenafi, S., Kassa, E., Aseffa, G., Amogne, W., Getachew, M., Aseffa, A., Worku, A. & Raqib, R. (2018). Daily adjunctive therapy with vitamin D3 and phenylbutyrate supports clinical recovery from pulmonary tuberculosis: A randomized controlled trial in Ethiopia. Journal of Internal Medicine, 284(3), 292–306.
Bodmer, T., Miltner, E., & Bermudez, L. E. (2000). Mycobacterium avium resists exposure to the acidic conditions of the stomach. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 182(1), 45–49.
Davydenko, P., Borovik, I., Kulishenko, O., Zazharskyi, V., Radzykhovskyі, M., Dyshkant, O., & Parchenko, V. (2023). Tuberkulotsydna ta tuberkulostatychna aktyvnist 1,2,4-tryazolnyh pohidnyh in vitro (vyznachennia MIK (minimalnoii inhibuiuchoii kontsentratsii) [Tuberculocidal and tuberculostаtic activity of 1,2,4-triazole derivatives in vitro (determination of MIC (minimum inhibitory concentration)]. Scientific and Technical Bulletin оf State Scientific Research Control Institute of Veterinary Medical Products and Fodder Additives аnd Institute of Animal Biology, 24(2), 59–71 (in Ukranian).
Debelu, T., Abunna, F., & Kassa, G. M. (2021). A preliminary study on public health implications of avian tuberculosis in selected districts of the Oromia Region, Ethiopia. Veterinary Medicine International, 6331599.
Dhama, K., Mahendran, M., Tiwari, R., Dayal Singh, S., Kumar, D., Singh, S., & Sawant, P. M. (2011). Tuberculosis in birds: Insights into the Mycobacterium avium infections. Veterinary Medicine International, 2011, 712369.
Dvorska, L., Bull, T. J., Bartos, M., Matlova, L., Svastova, P., Weston, R. T., Kintr, J., Parmova, I., Van Soolingen, D., & Pavlik, I. (2003). A standardised restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) method for typing Mycobacterium avium isolates links IS901 with virulence for birds. Journal of Microbiological Methods, 55(1), 11–27.
Dvorska, L., Matlova, L., Ayele, W. Y., Fischer, O. A., Amemori, T., Weston, R. T., Alvarez, J., Beran, V., Moravkova, M., & Pavlik, I. (2007). Avian tuberculosis in naturally infected captive water birds of the Ardeideae and Threskiornithidae families studied by serotyping, IS901 RFLP typing, and virulence for poultry. Veterinary Microbiology, 119(2–4), 366–374.
Dzhus, M., & Golovach, I. (2022). Impact of Ukrainian-Russian war on health care and humanitarian crisis. Disaster Medicine and Public Health Preparedness, 17, e340.
Falkinham 3rd, J. O. (2009). Surrounded by mycobacteria: Nontuberculous mycobacteria in the human environment. Journal of Applied Microbiology, 107(2), 356–367.
Fernández-Huerta, M., Santamaría-Valencia, C., Campos-Herrero, M. I., Pérez-Mendoza, G., Herrera-León, L., Bordes-Benítez, A., & Caminero, J. A. (2026). First case of pulmonary tuberculosis caused by Mycobacterium pinnipedii in Spain: A case report and review of the literature. Diagnostic Microbiology and Infectious Disease, 115(3), 117350.
Gerhold, R. W., & Fischer, J. R. (2005). Avian tuberculosis in a wild turkey. Avian Diseases, 49(1), 164–166.
Goodarzi, N., Akbari Bazm, M., Poladi, S., Rashidi, F., Mahmoudi, B., & Abumandour, M. M. A. (2021). Histology of the small intestine in the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus): A scanning electron microscopy, histochemical, immunohistochemical, and stereological study. Microscopy Research and Technique, 84(10), 2388–2398.
Hall, A., Sage, R. A., & Madden, J. R. (2021). The effects of released pheasants on invertebrate populations in and around woodland release sites. Ecology and Evolution, 11(19), 13559–13569.
Heatley, J. J., Mitchell, M. M., Roy, A., Cho, D. Y., Williams, D. L., & Tully Jr., T. N. (2007). Disseminated mycobacteriosis in a bald eagle (Haliaeetus leucocephalus). Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery, 21(3), 201–209.
Horalskyi, L. P., Sokulskiy, I. M., Kolesnik, N. L., Gutyj, B. V., Romaniuk, R. K., Pavliuchenko, O. V., Shevchuk, S. Y., & Maksymenko, Y. V. (2024). Morphology and morphometric features of the cerebellum of poultry. Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems. 15(4), 679–687.
Horalskyi, L. P., Sokulskyi, I. M., Ragulya, M. R., Kolesnik, N. L., Gutyj, B. V., Pavliuchenko, O. V., & Shevchuk, S. Y. (2025). Morphology and morphometric features of the heart of the domestic horse (Equus ferus caballus). Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems, 16(3), e25138.
Hsieh, Y. C., Tsai, K. Y., Wang, C. Y., Hung, C. N., Tsai, S. S., & Liu, H. J. (2009). Diagnosis of avian tuberculosis in Swinhoe's pheasants using conventional and molecular-based techniques. Avian Diseases, 53(4), 629–633.
Kaczmarkowska, A., Didkowska, А., Kwiecien, E., Stefanska, I., Rzewuska, M., & Anusz, K. (2022). The Mycobacterium avium complex – an underestimated threat to humans and animals. Annals of Agricultural and Environmental Medicine, 29(1), 22–27.
Kock, R., Michel, A. L., Yeboah-Manu, D., Azhar, E. I., Torrelles, J. B., Cadmus, S. I., Brunton, L., Chakaya, J. M., Marais, B., Mboera, L., Rahim, Z., Haider, N., & Zumla, A. (2021). Zoonotic tuberculosis – The changing landscape. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 113(1), 68–72.
Kornienko, L. Y., Ukhovskyі, V. V., Karpulenko, M. S., Moroz, О. А., Tsarenko, Т. М., Radzyhovskyi, M. L., & Ruda, М. Y. (2024). Epizootic situation in the world on transboundary animal disease. One Health Journal, 2(2), 41–58 (in Ukranian).
Korniienko, L. Y., Ukhovskyi, V. V., Moroz, O. A., Chechet, O. M., Aliekseieva, G. B., Tsarenko, T. M., Karpulenko, M. S., Nenych, N. P., & Radzykhovskyi, M. L. (2023). Current epizootological and epidemiological aspects of brucellosis in Ukraine. Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems, 14(1), 77–85.
Ledwoń, A., Napiórkowska, A., Augustynowicz-Kopeć, E., & Szeleszczuk, P. (2018). Drug susceptibility of non-tuberculous strains of Mycobacterium isolated from birds from Poland. Polish Journal of Microbiology, 67(4), 487–492.
Liakhovych, L. M., Ulianytska, A. Y., Zakhariev, A. V., Lohachova, L. O., & Drebot, Z. M. (2020). Patomorfolohichna kharakterystyka intestynalnykh patolohii za heneralizovanoho tuberkulozu fazaniv [Pathomorphological characteristic of intense pathologies in generalized tuberculosis in pheasants]. Veterynariia, Tekhnolohii Tvarynnytstva ta Pryrodokorystuvannia, 5, 85–90 (in Ukrainian).
Liulin, P., Bogach, M., Lyakhovich, L., & Ulyanizka, A. (2023). Pathologic-anatomical changes in the comorbidity of eimeriosis and tuberculosis in domestic chicken and decorative pheasants (Phasianus colchicus L., 1758). World’s Veterinary Journal, 13(2), 348–359.
Luciano, S. A., & Roess, A. (2020). Human zoonotic tuberculosis and livestock exposure in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review identifying challenges in laboratory diagnosis. Zoonoses and Public Health, 67(2), 97–111.
Lyachovich, L. M., Shchetynsky, I. M., Zakharyev, A. V., Ulyanizka, A. U., Martemianova, A. E., & Tkachova, K. V. (2018). Tuberkulʹoz fazaniv ta pavychiv: Aspekty tanatohenezu [Tuberculosis of pheasants and peafowls: Aspects of thanatogenesis]. Veterinary Science, Technologies of Animal Husbandry and Nature Management, 2, 56–58 (in Ukranian).
Lyakhovich, L., Shchetynsky, I., Zakharyev, A., Ulyanizka, A., Martemianova, A., Lyulin, P., & Kostyuk, I. (2019). Patolohichni zminy pechinky pry tuberkul’ozi fazaniv: Patomorfolohichnyy analiz [Pathological changes in the liver in tuberculosis of pheasants: Pathomorphological analysis]. Veterynarna Medytsyna, Tekhnolohiyi Tvarynnytstva ta Pryrodokorystuvannya, 3, 37–45 (in Ukranian).
Manarolla, G., Liandris, E., Pisoni, G., Sassera, D., Grilli, G., Gallazzi, D., Sironi, G., Moroni, P., Piccinini, R., & Rampin, T. (2009). Avian mycobacteriosis in companion birds: 20-year survey. Veterinary Microbiology, 133(4), 323–327.
Mariappan, A. K., Mathesh, K., Muthu, S., Bhatt, M., Sharma, M., Saikumar, G., & Dhama, K. (2023). Pathological and molecular identification of Mycobacterium avium infection in a loft of domestic pigeons (Columba livia var. domestica) from India. Brazilian Journal of Microbiology, 54(3), 2521–2526.
Maysoon, S. A. (2016). Investigation Mycobacterium sp. prevalence in the local birds in Baghdad. Mirror of Research in Veterinary Sciences and Animals, 5(2), 20–25.
Millán, J., Negre, N., Castellanos, E., de Juan, L., Mateos, A., Parpal, L., & Aranaz, A. (2010). Avian mycobacteriosis in free-living raptors in Majorca Island, Spain. Avian Pathology, 39(1), 1–6.
Moravkova, M., Lamka, J., Slany, M., & Pavlik, I. (2013). Genetic IS901 RFLP diversity among Mycobacterium avium subsp. avium isolates from four pheasant flocks. Journal of Veterinary Science, 14(1), 99–102.
Novytskyi, V. (2017). Ekolohichni osoblyvosti isnuvannia fazana zvychainoho (Phasianus colchicus L.) u suchasnomy lisostepu Ukrainy [Ecological peculiarities of the habitat of the common pheasant (Phasianus colchicus L.) in the modern Forest-Steppe of Ukraine]. Scientific Bulletin of UNFU, 27(1), 66–68. (in Ukranian).
Özen, H., Karaman, M., Dag, S., Karakurt, E., & Akbulut, Y. (2016). A case of tuberculosis in a freeliving long-legged buzzard (Buteo rufinus). Kafkas Universitesi Veteriner Fakultesi Dergisi, 22(3), 473–476.
Palmieri, C., Roy, P., Dhillon, A. S., & Shivaprasad, H. L. (2013). Avian mycobacteriosis in psittacines: A retrospective study of 123 cases. Journal of Comparative Pathology, 148(2–3), 126–138.
Polupan, I., Bezymennyi, M., Rudoi, O., Nychyk, S., Mezhenskyi, A., Tuyakhov, M., Lozhkina, O., Radzykhovskyi, M., Gutyj, B., & Ihnatovska, M. (2024). Spatial and temporal analysis of rabies and effectiveness of the oral rabies vaccination program in Ukraine. Biosystems Diversity, 32(2), 193–202.
Sabuz, S. H., Jahan, I., Debnath, B. K., Islam, M. M., & Islam, M. S. (2025). Zoonotic tuberculosis and dairy products: Comprehensive meta-analysis of prevalence and public health implications. Veterinary Medicine and Science, 11(5), e70556.
Sainsus, N., Cattori, V., Lepadatu, C., & Hofmann-Lehmann, R. (2008). Liquid culture medium for the rapid cultivation of Helicobacter pylori from biopsy specimens. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 27(12), 1209–1217.
Salamatian, І., Ghaniei, А., Mosavari, N., Nourani, Н., Keshavarz, R., & Eslampanah, М. (2020). Outbreak of avian mycobacteriosis in a commercial turkey breeder flock. Avian Pathology, 49(3), 296–304.
Schmidt, V., Köhler, H., Heenemann, K., & Möbius, P. (2022). Mycobacteriosis in various pet and wild birds from Germany: Pathological findings, coinfections, and characterization of causative mycobacteria. Microbiology Spectrum, 10(4), e0045222.
Schmidt, V., Schneider, S., Schlomer, J., Krautwald-Junghanns, M. E., & Richter, E. (2008). Transmission of tuberculosis between men and pet birds: A case report. Avian Pathology, 37(6), 589–592.
Shivaprasad, H. L., & Palmieri, C. (2012). Pathology of mycobacteriosis in birds. The Veterinary Clinics of North America, Exotic Animal Practice, 15(1), 41–55.
Syed, R. R., Catanzaro, D. G., Hillery, N., Crudu, V., Tudor, E., Ciobanu, N., Codreanu, A., Borujeni, M. K., Catanzaro, A., & Rodwell, T. C. (2024). Understanding tuberculosis transmission and progression: A prospective cohort study of index cases and close contacts in Moldova. PLoS One, 19(12), e0313270.
Szacawa, E., Radulski, Ł., Weiner, M., Szulowski, K., & Krajewska-Wędzina, M. (2025). Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex infections in animals: A comprehensive review of species distribution and laboratory diagnostic methods. Pathogens, 14(10), 1004.
Tell, L. A., Leutenegger, C. M., Larsen, R. S., Agnew, D. W., Keener, L., Needham, M. L., & Rideout, B. A. (2003). Real-time polymerase chain reaction testing for the detection of Mycobacterium genavense and Mycobacterium avium complex species in avian samples. Avian Diseases, 47(4), 1406–1415.
Tell, L. A., Woods, L., & Cromie, R. L. (2001). Avian tuberculosis in birds. Review Science and Technology Office Internationale des Epizooties, 20, 180–203.
Thorel, M. F., Huchzermeyer, H. F., & Michel, A. L. (2001). Mycobacterium avium and Mycobacterium intracellulare infection in mammals. Revue Scientifique et Technique, 20(1), 204–218.
Tortoli, E., Rindi, L., Garcia, M. J., Chiaradonna, P., Dei, R., Garzelli, C., Kroppenstedt, R. M., Lari, N., Mattei, R., Mariottini, A., Mazzarelli, G., Murcia, M. I., Nanetti, A., Piccoli, P., & Scarparo, C. (2004). Proposal to elevate the genetic variant MAC-A, included in the Mycobacterium avium complex, to species rank as Mycobacterium chimaera sp. nov. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology, 54(4), 1277–1285.
Ukhovskyi, V. V., Pyskun, A. V., Korniienko, L. Y., Polishchuk, O. D., Aliekseieva, G. B., Horbatiuk, O. I., Radzykhovskyi, M. L., Pishchanskyi, O. V., Ukhovskа Т. М., & Halka, I. V. (2025). Spatio-temporal analysis of leptospirosis in cattle in Ukraine over 2005–2024. Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems, 16(3), e25101.
Une, Y., & Mori, T. (2007). Tuberculosis as a zoonosis from a veterinary perspective. Comparative Immunology, Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, 30(5–6), 415–425.
Wilczek, N. A., Brzyska, A., Bogucka, J., Sielwanowska, W. E., Żybowska, M., Piecewicz-Szczęsna, H., & Smoleń, A. (2023). The impact of the war in Ukraine on the epidemiological situation of tuberculosis in Europe. Journal of Clinical Medicine, 12(20), 6554.
Witte, C., Fowler, J. H., Pfeiffer, W., Hungerford, L. L., Braun, J., Burchell, J., Papendick, R., & Rideout, B. A. (2021). Social network analysis and whole-genome sequencing to evaluate disease transmission in a large, dynamic population: A study of avian mycobacteriosis in zoo birds. PLoS One, 16(6), e0252152.
Woldemariam, T., Mohammed, T., Zewude, A., Chanyalew, M., Khalifa, H. O., Mamo, G., & Ameni, G. (2025). Zoonotic transmission of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis complex between cattle and humans in Central Ethiopia. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 12, 1527279.
Zhang, C., Wang, L., Zhang, C., Zhang, N., Sun, H., Chu, D., Qin, S., Ma, Z., Gulyaeva, M., Shestopalov, A., Liu, W., Gao, G. F., & Bi, Y. (2025). Avian tuberculosis identified as the potential disease in an outbreak in wild migratory birds in China. mLife, 4(1), 101–103.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons «Attribution» 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
