Poultry at the crossroads of antimicrobial resistance: Global challenges and sustainable solutions

V. Moskalov; I. Ionov; H. Fotina; T. Fotina; O. Anisimova; I. Upatova; R. Buriak; O. Fotin˒

doi:10.15421/0226025

V. Moskalov Kharkiv Humanitarian-Pedagogical Academy
I. Ionov H. S. Skovoroda Kharkiv National Pedagogical University
H. Fotina Sumy National Agrarian University
T. Fotina Sumy National Agrarian University
O. Anisimova National Academy of Agrarian Sciences of Ukraine
I. Upatova Kharkiv Humanitarian-Pedagogical Academy
R. Buriak Sumy National Agrarian University
O. Fotin˒ Kharkiv Humanitarian-Pedagogical Academy

Keywords: antimicrobial resistance, poultry production, One Health, environmental reservoirs, resistome, biological alternatives.

Abstract

Antimicrobial resistance in poultry production represents a rapidly intensifying global challenge at the intersection of animal agriculture, human health and environmental sustainability. This review sy n thesizes molecular, epidemiological and ecological evidence to identify the mechanisms driving the emergence and spread of antimicrobial resistance within poultry systems. Analysis of international data shows that selective antimicrobial pressure, horizontal gene transfer and environmental co-selection contribute to the formation of a dynamic and interconnected resistome. Particular attention is given to plasmid-mediated ESBL and mcr determinants, which facilitate the exchange of resistance genes among Escherichia coli , Salmonella enterica and Campylobacter spp. across poultry, wildlife and human pop u lations. These molecular processes are consistent with epidemiological findings demonstrating overla p ping genomic profiles among isolates from farms, wild birds and clinical cases. The persistence of r e sistance reservoirs along the farm–environment interface is promoted by intensive production, inad e quate biosecurity and manure mismanagement. Effective mitigation requires integrating antimicrobial stewardship, vaccination, improved biosecurity and precision livestock technologies, supported by promising biological alternatives such as probiotics, phytobiotics, bacteriophages and mesenchymal stem cell secretome. Strengthening molecular surveillance, environmental monitoring and One Health governance can shift AMR control from reactive interventions to preventive strategies, promoting a more sustainable and antibiotic-independent poultry sector.

References

Abdelqader, A., Abuajamieh, M., Hayajneh, F., & Al-Fataftah, A. R. (2020). Probiotic bacteria maintain normal growth mechanisms of heat-stressed broiler chickens. Journal of Thermal Biology, 92, 102654.

Abreu, R., Semedo-Lemsaddek, T., Cunha, E., Tavares, L., & Oliveira, M. (2023). Antimicrobial drug resistance in poultry production: Current status and innovative strategies for bacterial control. Microorganisms, 11(4), 953.

Abudabos, A. M., Ali, M. H., Nassan, M. A., & Saleh, A. A. (2019). Ameliorative effect of Bacillus subtilis on growth performance and intestinal architecture in broilers infected with Salmonella. Animals, 9, 190.

Aidara-Kane, A., Andremont, A., & Collignon, P. (2013). Antimicrobial resistance in the food chain and the AGISAR initiative. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 6(3), 162–165.

Ajayi, A. O., Odeyemi, A. T., Akinjogunla, O. J., Adeyeye, A. B., & Ayo-Ajayi, I. (2024). Review of antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic resistance genes within the One Health framework. Infectious Ecology and Epidemiology, 14, 2312953.

Al Sattar, A., Chisty, N. N., Irin, N., Uddin, M. H., Hasib, F. Y., & Hoque, M. A. (2023). Knowledge and practice of antimicrobial usage and resistance among poultry farmers: A systematic review, meta-analysis, and meta-regression. Veterinary Research Communications, 47, 1047–1066.

Allel, K., Fernandez-Miyakawa, M., Gaze, W., Petroni, A., Corso, A., Luna, F., Barcelona, L., Boden, L., & Pitchforth, E. (2024). Opportunities and challenges in antimicrobial resistance policy including animal production systems and humans across stakeholders in Argentina: A context and qualitative analysis. BMJ Open, 14(6), e082156.

Andreoletti, O., Budka, H., Buncic, S., Collins, J. D., Griffin, J., Hald, T., Havelaar, A. H., Hope, J., Klein, G., Koutsumanis, K., McLauchlin, J., Müller-Graf, C., Nguyen-The, C., Noerrung, B., Peixe, L., Maradona, M. P., Ricci, A., Sofos, J., Threlfall, J., Vågsholm, I., & Vanopdenbosch, E. (2011). Scientific opinion on the public health risks of bacterial strains producing extended-spectrum β-lactamases and/or AmpC β-lactamases in food and food-producing animals. EFSA Journal, 9(8), 2322.

Anyanwu, M. U., Jaja, I. F., Okpala, C. O. R., Njoga, E. O., Okafor, N. A., & Oguttu, J. W. (2023). Mobile colistin resistance (mcr) gene-containing organisms in the poultry sector in low- and middle-income countries: Epidemiology, characteristics, and One Health control strategies. Antibiotics, 12(7), 1117.

Ardakani, Z., Aragrande, M., & Canali, M. (2024). Global antimicrobial use in livestock farming: An estimate for cattle, chickens, and pigs. Animal, 18, 101060.

Berckmans, D. (2017). General introduction to precision livestock farming. Animal Frontiers, 7, 6–11.

Berendonk, T. U., Manaia, C. M., Merlin, C., Fatta-Kassinos, D., Cytryn, E., Walsh, F., Bürgmann, H., Sørum, H., Norström, M., Pons, M. N., Kreuzinger, N., Huovinen, P., Stefani, S., Schwartz, T., Kisand, V., Baquero, F., & Martínez, J. L. (2015). Tackling antibiotic resistance: The environmental framework. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 13, 310–317.

Bolder, N. M. (2007). Microbial challenges of poultry meat production. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 63, 401–411.

Botelho, J., & Schulenburg, H. (2021). The role of integrative and conjugative elements in antibiotic resistance evolution. Trends in Microbiology, 29(1), 8–18.

Brenes, A., & Roura, E. (2010). Essential oils in poultry nutrition: Main effects and modes of action. Animal Feed Science and Technology, 158, 1–14.

Broom, L. J., & Kogut, M. H. (2018). The role of the gut microbiome in shaping the immune system of chickens. Veterinary Immunology and Immunopathology, 204, 44–51.

Carattoli, A. (2009). Resistance plasmid families in Enterobacteriaceae. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy, 53(6), 2227–2238.

Carattoli, A. (2013). Plasmids and the spread of resistance. International Journal of Medical Microbiology, 303, 298–304.

Carroll, D., Daszak, P., Wolfe, N. D., Gao, G. F., Morel, C. M., Morzaria, S., Pablos-Méndez, A., Tomori, O., & Mazet, J. A. K. (2018). The Global Virome Project. Science, 359(6378), 872–874.

Carroll, D., Wang, J., Fanning, S., & McMahon, B. J. (2015). Antimicrobial resistance in wildlife: Implications for public health. Zoonoses and Public Health, 62, 534–542.

Casalino, G., D’Amico, F., Dinardo, F. R., Bozzo, G., Napoletano, V., Camarda, A., & Circella, E. (2022). Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter coli in wild birds from a wildlife rescue centre. Animals, 12(20), 2889.

Caudell, M. A., Dorado-Garcia, A., Eckford, S., Creese, C., Byarugaba, D. K., Afakye, K., Ossai, E. N., & Grace, D. (2020). Towards a bottom-up understanding of antimicrobial use and resistance on the farm: A knowledge, attitudes, and practices survey across livestock systems in five African countries. PLoS One, 15, e0220274.

Cervantes, H. M. (2015). Antibiotic-free poultry production: Is it sustainable? Journal of Applied Poultry Research, 24(1), 91–97.

Chantziaras, I., Boyen, F., Callens, B., & Dewulf, J. (2014). Correlation between veterinary antimicrobial use and antimicrobial resistance in food-producing animals: A report on seven countries. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 69, 827–834.

Chavarría-Bencomo, I. V., Nevárez-Moorillón, G. V., Espino-Solís, G. P., & Adame-Gallegos, J. R. (2023). Antibiotic resistance in tick-borne bacteria: A One Health perspective. Journal of Infection and Public Health, 16(S1), 153–162.

Chouaib, B., Haack-Sørensen, M., Chaubron, F., Cuisinier, F., & Collart-Dutilleul, P. Y. (2023). Towards the standardization of mesenchymal stem cell secretome-derived product manufacturing for tissue regeneration. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 24(16), 12594.

Cisek, A. A., Dąbrowska, I., Gregorczyk, K. P., & Wyżewski, Z. (2017). Phage therapy in bacterial infections treatment: One hundred years after the discovery of bacteriophages. Current Microbiology, 74, 277–283.

Clavijo, V., Baquero, D., Hernandez, S., Farfan, J. C., Arias, J., & Arévalo, A. (2019). Phage cocktail SalmoFREE® reduces Salmonella on a commercial broiler farm. Poultry Science, 98, 5054–5063.

Costa, M. M., Cardo, M., Ruano, Z., Alho, A. M., Dinis-Teixeira, J., Aguiar, P., & Leite, A. (2023). Effectiveness of antimicrobial interventions directed at tackling antimicrobial resistance in animal production: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 218, 106002.

da Silva Jr., J. B., Espinal, M., & Ramón-Pardo, P. (2020). Antimicrobial resistance: Time for action. Revista Panamericana de Salud Pública, 44, e131.

de Greeff, S. C., Kolwijck, E., & Schoffelen, A. F. (2023). MARAN 2023: Monitoring of antimicrobial resistance and antibiotic usage in animals in the Netherlands in 2022. RIVM. Pp. 1–76.

de la Fuente, J., Antunes, S., Bonnet, S., Cabezas-Cruz, A., Domingos, A. G., Estrada-Peña, A., Johnson, N., Kocan, K. M., Mansfield, K. L., Nijhof, A. M., Papa, A., Rudenko, N., Villar, M., Alberdi, P., Torina, A., Ayllón, N., Vancová, M., Golovchenko, M., Grubhoffer, L., Caracappa, S., Fooks, A. R., Gortazar, C., & Rego, R. O. M. (2017). Tick–pathogen interactions and vector competence: Identification of molecular drivers for tick-borne diseases. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 7, 114.

Duarte, A. S. R., Pessoa, J., Attauabi, M., Lindegaard, M., & Sönksen, U. W. (2024). DANMAP 2023: Use of antimicrobial agents and occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria from food animals, food and humans in Denmark. Statens Serum Institut. Pp. 1–190.

Dunlop, M. W., Le, H. V., & Stuetz, R. M. (2022). Litter management strategies to reduce odour emissions from poultry litter. Australian Poultry Cooperative Research Centre. Pp. 1–360.

Economou, V., & Gousia, P. (2015). Agriculture and food animals as a source of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria. Infectious Drug Resistance, 8, 49–61.

Elshobary, M. E., Badawy, N. K., Ashraf, Y., Zatioun, A. A., Masriya, H. H., Ammar, M. M., Mohamed, N. A., Mourad, S., & Assy, A. M. (2025). Combating antibiotic resistance: Mechanisms, multidrug-resistant pathogens, and novel therapeutic approaches – An updated review. Pharmaceuticals, 18(3), 402.

Engobo, G. P., Su, W., Wang, S., Yan, Z., Zhang, Y., Zhang, M., Geng, X., Xu, H., Li, L., & Wang, M. (2025). Prevalent and diverse new plasmid-encoded heavy metal and antimicrobial resistance in Klebsiella strains isolated from hospital wastewater. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology, 15, 1653886.

Esposito, E., Scarpellini, R., Celli, G., Marliani, G., Zaghini, A., Mondo, E., & Piva, S. (2024). Wild birds as potential bioindicators of environmental antimicrobial resistance: A preliminary investigation. Research in Veterinary Science, 180, 105424.

European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2023). Antimicrobial resistance in the EU/EEA (EARS-Net): Annual epidemiological report 2022. ECDC. Pp. 1–46.

European Commission (2017). A European One Health action plan against antimicrobial resistance (AMR). European Comission. Pp. 1–24.

European Food Safety Authority & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2024). The European Union One Health 2023 zoonoses report. EFSA Journal, 22, e9106.

European Food Safety Authority & European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control (2025). The European Union summary report on antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic and indicator bacteria from humans, animals and food in 2022–2023. EFSA Journal, 23(1), e9237.

European Food Safety Authority & European Medicines Agency (2021). Third joint inter-agency report on integrated analysis of antimicrobial agent consumption and occurrence of antimicrobial resistance in bacteria from humans and food-producing animals in the EU/EEA. EFSA Journal, 19(6), e06712.

Farkas, Z., Strang, O., Zentai, A., Csorba, S., Farkas, M., Bittsánszky, A., & Tóth, I. (2025). Scoping review of factors affecting antimicrobial use and the spread of antimicrobial resistance in the poultry production chain. Veterinary Sciences, 12, 881.

Fischetti, V. A. (2018). Development of phage lysins as novel therapeutics: A historical perspective. Viruses, 10(6), 310.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2021). The FAO action plan on antimicrobial resistance 2021–2025: Supporting innovation and resilience in food and agriculture sectors. FAO. Pp. 1–46.

Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2024). Tackling antimicrobial resistance in food and agriculture. FAO. Pp. 1–64.

Founou, L. L., Founou, R. C., & Essack, S. Y. (2021). Antimicrobial resistance in the farm-to-plate continuum: More than a food safety issue. Future Science OA, 7(2), FSO692.

Gadde, U., Kim, W. H., Oh, S. T., & Lillehoj, H. S. (2017). Alternatives to antibiotics for maximizing growth performance and feed efficiency in poultry: A review. Animal Health Research Reviews, 18, 26–45.

Garcia-Graells, C., Berbers, B., Verhaegen, B., Vanneste, K., Marchal, K., Roosens, N. H., & De Keersmaecker, S. C. J. (2020). First detection of a plasmid-located carbapenem-resistant blaVIM-1 gene in Escherichia coli isolated from meat products at retail in Belgium in 2015. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 324, 108624.

George, D. R., Finn, R. D., Graham, K. M., Mul, M. F., Maurer, V., Moro, C. V., & Sparagano, O. A. E. (2015). Should the poultry red mite Dermanyssus gallinae be of wider concern for veterinary and medical science? Parasites and Vectors, 8, 178.

Giacopello, C., Foti, M., Mascetti, A., Grosso, F., Ricciardi, D., Fisichella, V., & Lo Piccolo, F. (2016). Antimicrobial resistance patterns of Enterobacteriaceae in European wild bird species admitted to a wildlife rescue centre. Veterinaria Italiana, 52, 327–334.

Gozdzielewska, L., King, C., Flowers, P., Mellor, D., Dunlop, P., & Price, L. (2020). Scoping review of approaches for improving antimicrobial stewardship in livestock farmers and veterinarians. Preventive Veterinary Medicine, 180, 105025.

Grace, D. (2015). Food safety in low- and middle-income countries. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 12, 10490–10507.

Greig, J., Rajić, A., Young, I., Mascarenhas, M., Waddell, L., & LeJeune, J. (2015). A scoping review of the role of wildlife in the transmission of bacterial pathogens and antimicrobial resistance to the food chain. Zoonoses and Public Health, 62, 269–284.

Harman, R. M., Churchill, K. A., Parmar, S., & Van de Walle, G. R. (2022). Mesenchymal stromal cells isolated from chicken peripheral blood secrete bioactive factors with antimicrobial and regenerative properties. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 9, 949836.

Harmer, C. J., & Hall, R. M. (2016). IS26-mediated formation of transposons carrying antibiotic resistance genes. mSphere, 1(2), e00038-16.

Hedman, H. D., Vasco, K. A., & Zhang, L. (2020). A review of antimicrobial resistance in poultry farming within low-resource settings. Animals, 10(8), 1264.

Hendriksen, R. S., Munk, P., Njage, P., van Bunnik, B., McNally, L., Lukjancenko, O., Röder, T., Nieuwenhuijse, D., Pedersen, S. K., Kjeldgaard, J., Kaas, R. S., Clausen, P. T. L. C., Vogt, J. K., Leekitcharoenphon, P., van de Schans, M. G. M., Zuidema, T., de Roda Husman, A. M., Rasmussen, S., Petersen, B., & Aarestrup, F. M. (2019). Global monitoring of antimicrobial resistance based on metagenomics analyses of urban sewage. Nature Communications, 10, 1124.

Heuer, H., Schmitt, H., & Smalla, K. (2011). Antibiotic resistance gene spread due to manure application on agricultural fields. Current Opinion in Microbiology, 14, 236–243.

Hussein, M. A., Hussein, H. A., Thabet, A. A., Selim, K. M., Dawood, M. A. O., & El-Adly, A. M. (2022). Human Wharton’s jelly mesenchymal stem cells secretome inhibits human SARS-CoV-2 and avian infectious bronchitis coronaviruses. Cells, 11, 1408.

Islam, M. R., Hossain, M. M., Mishu, M. A. M., & Ghosh, A. (2025). Co-exposure to heavy metals and antibiotics enhances resistance and transcriptional adaptation in enteric pathogens from poultry. Total Environment Microbiology, 1(4), 100039.

Islam, M. R., Martinez-Soto, C. E., Lin, J. T., Khursigara, C. M., Barbut, S., & Anany, H. (2023). A systematic review from basics to omics on bacteriophage applications in poultry production and processing. Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition, 63, 3097–3129.

Jimoh, F. A., Ajao, A. T., Tope, A. W., & Abdulsalam, Z. B. (2025). Co-selection of antibiotic resistance and heavy metal tolerance in bacterial species isolated from automobile scrapyard soils. World Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology, 41(5), 141.

Kasabova, S., Hartmann, M., Freise, F., Hommerich, K., Fischer, S., Wilms-Schulze-Kump, A., & Kreienbrock, L. (2021). Antibiotic usage patterns in broiler chicken flocks in Germany. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 8, 673809.

Kogut, M. H., & Arsenault, R. J. (2016). Gut health: The new paradigm in food animal production. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 3, 71.

Kou, M., Huang, L., Yang, J., Chiang, Z., Chen, S., & Liu, J. (2022). Mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles for immunomodulation and regeneration: A next-generation therapeutic tool. Cell Death and Disease, 13, 580.

Landers, T. F., Cohen, B., Wittum, T. E., & Larson, E. L. (2012). A review of antibiotic use in food animals: Perspective, policy, and potential. Public Health Reports, 127, 4–22.

Larsson, D. G. J., & Flach, C. F. (2022). Antibiotic resistance in the environment. Nature Reviews Microbiology, 20(5), 257–269.

Laxminarayan, R., Duse, A., Wattal, C., Zaidi, A. K. M., Wertheim, H. F. L., Sumpradit, N., Vlieghe, E., Hara, G. L., Gould, I. M., Goossens, H., Greko, C., So, A. D., Bigdeli, M., Tomson, G., Woodhouse, W., Ombaka, E., Peralta, A. Q., Qamar, F. N., Mir, F., Kariuki, S., Bhutta, Z. A., Coates, A., Bergstrom, R., Wright, G. D., Brown, E. D., & Cars, O. (2013). Antibiotic resistance: The need for global solutions. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 13, 1057–1098.

Lekagul, A., Tangcharoensathien, V., Mills, A., Rushton, J., & Yeung, S. (2020). How antibiotics are used in pig farming: A mixed-methods study of pig farmers, feed mills and veterinarians in Thailand. BMJ Global Health, 5, e001918.

Lhermie, G., Gröhn, Y. T., & Raboisson, D. (2017). Addressing antimicrobial resistance: An overview of priority actions to prevent suboptimal antimicrobial use in food-animal production. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 2114.

Liu, Y. Y., Wang, Y., Walsh, T. R., Yi, L. X., Zhang, R., Spencer, J., Doi, Y., Tian, G., Dong, B., Huang, X., Yu, L. F., Gu, D., Ren, H., Chen, X., Lv, L., He, D., Zhou, H., Liang, Z., Liu, J. H., & Shen, J. (2016). Emergence of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance mechanism MCR-1 in animals and human beings in China. The Lancet Infectious Diseases, 16, 161–168.

Loc-Carrillo, C., & Abedon, S. T. (2011). Pros and cons of phage therapy. Bacteriophage, 1, 111–114.

Manafi, M., Hedayati, M., & Mirzaie, S. (2018). Probiotic Bacillus species and Saccharomyces boulardii improve performance, gut histology and immunity in broiler chickens. South African Journal of Animal Science, 48, 379–389.

Marmelstein, S., Costa, I. P. D. A., Terra, A. V., Silva, R. F. D., Capela, G. P. D. O., & Moreira, M. Â. L. (2024). Advancing efficiency and sustainability in poultry farms through data envelopment analysis in a Brazilian production system. Animals, 14(5), 726.

Martín-Maldonado, B., Rodríguez-Alcázar, P., Fernández-Novo, A., González, F., Pastor, N., López, I., & Aranaz, A. (2022). Urban birds as antimicrobial resistance sentinels: White storks showed higher multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli levels than seagulls in central Spain. Animals, 12(19), 2714.

Mbuthia, C. W., & Hoza, A. S. (2025). Wild birds as potential reservoirs of antimicrobial-resistant Escherichia coli: A systematic review. Frontiers in Microbiology, 16, 1615826.

McEwen, S. A., & Collignon, P. J. (2018). Antimicrobial resistance: A One Health perspective. Microbiology Spectrum, 6(2), ARBA-0009-2017.

Mdemu, S., Matondo, A. B., Christensen, J. P., Amasha, A. E., Ngowi, H. A., Westwood, E., & Mdegela, R. H. (2025). Factors influencing the frequency, knowledge, attitudes and practices of antibiotic use in commercial layer chicken farms in Tanzania. Frontiers in Antibiotics, 4, 1571096.

Michael, G. B., & Schwarz, S. (2016). Antimicrobial resistance in zoonotic nontyphoidal Salmonella: An alarming trend? Foodborne Pathogens and Disease, 13, 425–435.

Molina-Lopez, R. A., Valverdú, N., Martin, M., Mateu, E., Obon, E., Cerdà-Cuéllar, M., & Darwich, L. (2011). Wild raptors as carriers of antimicrobial-resistant Salmonella and Campylobacter strains. Veterinary Record, 168, 565.

Mountzouris, K. C., Tsitrsikos, P., Palamidi, I., Arvaniti, A., Mohnl, M., Schatzmayr, G., & Fegeros, K. (2010). Effects of probiotic inclusion levels in broiler nutrition on growth performance, nutrient digestibility, plasma immunoglobulins, and cecal microflora composition. Poultry Science, 89, 58–67.

Mudenda, S., Bumbangi, F. N., Yamba, K., Munyeme, M., Malama, S., Mukosha, M., & Chileshe, M. (2023). Drivers of antimicrobial resistance in layer poultry farming: Evidence from high prevalence of multidrug-resistant Escherichia coli and enterococci in Zambia. Veterinary World, 16, 1803–1814.

Mughini-Gras, L., Dorado-García, A., van Duijkeren, E., van den Bunt, G., Dierikx, C. M., Bonten, M. J. M., Bootsma, M. C. J., Schmitt, H., Hald, T., Evers, E. G., & de Koeijer, A. A. (2019). Attributable sources of community-acquired carriage of Escherichia coli containing β-lactam antibiotic resistance genes: A population-based modelling study. The Lancet Planetary Health, 3(8), e357–e369.

Mulchandani, R., Wang, Y., Gilbert, M., & Van Boeckel, T. P. (2023). Global trends in antimicrobial use in food-producing animals: 2020 to 2030. PLoS Global Public Health, 3, e0001305.

Murray, C. J. L., Ikuta, K. S., Sharara, F., Swetschinski, L., Aguilar, G. R., Gray, A., Han, C., Bisignano, C., Rao, P., Wool, E., Johnson, S. C., Browne, A. J., Chipeta, M. G., Fell, F., Hackett, S., Haines-Woodhouse, G., Kashef Hamadani, B. H., Kumaran, E. A. P., McManigal, B., … Naghavi, M. (2022). Global burden of bacterial antimicrobial resistance in 2019: A systematic analysis. The Lancet, 399, 629–655.

Murray, L. M., Hayes, A., Snape, J., Kasprzyk-Hordern, B., Gaze, W. H., & Murray, A. K. (2024). Co-selection for antibiotic resistance by environmental contaminants. NPJ Antimicrobials and Resistance, 2, 9.

Nadimpalli, M., Delarocque-Astagneau, E., Love, D. C., Price, L. B., Huynh, B. T., Collard, J. M., Lay, K. S., Borand, L., Ndir, A., Walsh, T. R., Guillemot, D., & BIRDY Study Group (2018). Combating global antibiotic resistance: Emerging One Health concerns in lower- and middle-income countries. Clinical Infectious Diseases, 66(6), 963–969.

Neethirajan, S. (2020). The role of sensors, big data and machine learning in modern animal farming. Sensing and Biosensing Research, 29, 100367.

Neethirajan, S. (2020). Transforming the adaptation physiology of farm animals through sensors. Animals, 10(9), 1512.

Nhung, N. T., Cuong, N. V., Campbell, J., Hoa, N. T., Bryant, J. E., Truc, V. N. T., Kiet, B. T., Jombart, T., Trung, N. V., Hien, V. B., & Carri-que-Mas, J. J. (2016). Antimicrobial usage and antimicrobial resistance in animal production in Southeast Asia: A review. Antibiotics, 5, 37.

Oakley, B. B., Lillehoj, H. S., Kogut, M. H., Kim, W. K., Maurer, J. J., & Pedroso, A. (2014). The chicken gastrointestinal microbiome. FEMS Microbiology Letters, 360, 100–112.

Oluwasile, B. B., Agbaje, M., Ojo, O. E., & Dipeolu, M. A. (2014). Antibiotic usage pattern in selected poultry farms in Ogun State. Sokoto Journal of Veterinary Sciences, 12, 45–50.

Overdevest, I., Willemsen, I., Rijnsburger, M., Eustace, A., Xu, L., Hawkey, P., Heck, M., Savelkoul, P., Vandenbroucke-Grauls, C., van der Zwaluw, K., Huijsdens, X., & Kluytmans, J. (2011). Extended-spectrum β-lactamase genes of Escherichia coli in chicken meat and humans, the Netherlands. Emerging Infectious Diseases, 17(7), 1216–1222.

Panda, B., Sharma, Y., Gupta, S., & Mohanty, S. (2021). Mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes as an emerging paradigm for regenerative therapy and nanomedicine: A comprehensive review. Life, 11(8), 784.

Partridge, S. R., Kwong, S. M., Firth, N., & Jensen, S. O. (2018). Mobile genetic elements associated with antimicrobial resistance. Clinical Microbiology Reviews, 31(4), e00088-17.

Poirel, L., Madec, J. Y., Lupo, A., Schink, A. K., Kieffer, N., Nordmann, P., & Schwarz, S. (2018). Antimicrobial resistance in Escherichia coli. Microbiology Spectrum, 6, ARBA-0026-2017.

Postma, M., Backhans, A., Collineau, L., Loesken, S., Sjölund, M., Belloc, C., Emanuelson, U., Beilage, E. G., Stärk, K. D. C., & Dewulf, J. (2016). Evaluation of the relationship between the biosecurity status, production parameters, herd characteristics and antimicrobial usage in farrow-to-finish pig production in four European Union countries. Porcine Health Management, 2, 9.

Radhouani, H., Silva, N., Poeta, P., Torres, C., Correia, S., & Igrejas, G. (2014). Potential impact of antimicrobial resistance in wildlife, environment and human health. Frontiers in Microbiology, 5, 23.

Rizzo, F., Vitale, N., Ballardini, M., Borromeo, V., Luzzago, C., Chiavacci, L., & Mandola, M. L. (2019). Tick-borne bacterial pathogens in ticks collected from domestic animals and humans in Italy. Parasites & Vectors, 12, 470.

Roth, N., Käsbohrer, A., Mayrhofer, S., Zitz, U., Hofacre, C., & Domig, K. J. (2019). The application of antibiotics in broiler production and the resulting antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli: A global overview. Poultry Science, 98(4), 1791–1804.

Roth, N., Käsbohrer, A., Mayrhofer, S., Zitz, U., Hofacre, C., & Domig, K. J. (2019). The application of antibiotics in broiler production and the resulting antibiotic resistance in Escherichia coli: A global overview. Poultry Science, 98, 1791–1804.

Rothrock Jr., M. J., Keen, P. L., Cook, K. L., Durso, L. M., Franklin, A. M., & Dungan, R. S. (2016). How should we be determining back-ground and baseline antibiotic resistance levels in agroecosystem research? Journal of Environmental Quality, 45, 420–431.

Rozwandowicz, M., Brouwer, M. S. M., Fischer, J., Wagenaar, J. A., Gonzalez-Zorn, B., Guerra, B., Mevius, D. J., & Hordijk, J. (2018). Plasmids carrying antimicrobial resistance genes in Enterobacteriaceae. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 73(5), 1121–1137.

Saeed, M., Afzal, Z., Afzal, F., Khan, R. U., Elnesr, S. S., Alagawany, M., & Chen, H. (2023). Use of postbiotics as growth promoters in the poultry industry: Current knowledge and future prospects. Food Science and Animal Resources, 43, 1111.

Sandonà, M., Di Pietro, L., Esposito, F., Ventura, A., Silini, A. R., Parolini, O., & Saccone, V. (2021). Mesenchymal stromal cells and their secretome: New therapeutic perspectives for skeletal muscle regeneration. Frontiers in Bioengineering and Biotechnology, 9, 652970.

Sari, M. I., Jusuf, N. K., Munir, D., Putra, A., Putra, I. B., Bisri, T., Farhat, F., Ilyas, S., & Muhar, A. M. (2024). Mesenchymal stem cell secretome therapy on inflammation: A systematic review. Journal of Pharmacy and Pharmacognosy Research, 12(1), 39–49.

Savelkoul, P. H. M., & Wolffs, P. F. G. (2016). Dissemination of antimicrobial resistance in microbial ecosystems through horizontal gene transfer. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 173.

Schar, D., Zhao, C., Wang, Y., Larsson, D. G. J., Gilbert, M., & Van Boeckel, T. P. (2021). Twenty-year trends in antimicrobial resistance from aquaculture and fisheries in Asia. Nature Communications, 12, 5384.

Scott, A. M., Beller, E., Glasziou, P., Clark, J., Ranakusuma, R. W., Byambasuren, O., Bakhit, M., Page, S. W., Trott, D., & Mar, C. D. (2018). Is antimicrobial administration to food animals a direct threat to human health? A rapid systematic review. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 52(3), 316–323.

Selaledi, L. A., Hassan, Z. M., Manyelo, T. G., & Mabelebele, M. (2020). The current status of the alternative use to antibiotics in poultry production: An African perspective. Antibiotics, 9(9), 594.

Senthamilselvan, B., Rameshkumar, M. R., Madani, Z. S., Dhanasezhian, A., Kamalakar, S., Sivakumar, S., Nishanth, A., Alodaini, H. A., Hatamleh, A. A., & Arunagirinathan, N. (2024). Molecular analysis of ESBL- and AmpC-producing Enterobacteriaceae in fecal samples from broiler and backyard chickens. Journal of King Saud University – Science, 36(6), 103191.

Shoaib, M., Hameed, M. F., Aqib, A. I., Wang, W., Wang, Q., Wang, S., & Pu, W. (2025). Emerging threat of antimicrobial resistance determinants and plasmid replicon type acquisition by Escherichia coli of poultry and other food-producing animal origin in China: Local findings with global implications. Poultry Science, 104(12), 106055.

Simon, B. O., Nnaji, N. D., Anumudu, C. K., Aleke, J. C., Ekwueme, C. T., & Uhegwu, C. C. (2025). Microbiome-based interventions for food safety and environmental health. Applied Sciences, 15(9), 5219.

Singer, A. C., Shaw, H., Rhodes, V., & Hart, A. (2016). Review of antimicrobial resistance in the environment and its relevance to environmental regulators. Frontiers in Microbiology, 7, 1728.

Singer, R. S., Schrag, N. F., Ricke, I., & Apley, M. D. (2023). Antimicrobial usage in broiler chicken production in the United States, 2013–2021. Frontiers in Veterinary Science, 10, 1139908.

Skov, R. L., & Monnet, D. L. (2016). Plasmid-mediated colistin resistance (mcr-1 gene): Three months later, the story unfolds. Eurosurveillance, 21, 30155.

Soster, P., Devos, P., Smets, R., Tuyttens, F. A. M., Andretta, I., Buyse, J., & Van der Staay, F. J. (2025). A systematic review linking welfare and automated analysis of acoustic signals in broiler chickens and layers. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 81(4), 1049–1080.

Stalder, T., Barraud, O., Casellas, M., Dagot, C., & Ploy, M. C. (2012). Integron involvement in environmental spread of antibiotic resistance. Frontiers in Microbiology, 3, 119.

Svoradova, A., Zmrhal, V., Venusova, E., & Slama, P. (2021). Chicken mesenchymal stem cells and their applications: A mini review. Animals, 11(7), 1883.

Swift, B. M. C., Bennett, M., Waller, K., Dodd, C., Murray, A., Gomes, R. L., & Wigley, P. (2019). Anthropogenic environmental drivers of antimicrobial resistance in wildlife. Science of the Total Environment, 649, 12–20.

Tang, K. L., Caffrey, N. P., Nóbrega, D. B., Cork, S. C., Ronksley, P. E., Barkema, H. W., Polachek, A. J., Ganshorn, H., Sharma, N., Kellner, J. D., & Ghali, W. A. (2017). Restricting the use of antibiotics in food-producing animals and its associations with antibiotic resistance in food-producing animals and human beings: A systematic review and meta-analysis. The Lancet Planetary Health, 1, e316–e327.

Tiseo, K., Huber, L., Gilbert, M., Robinson, T. P., & Van Boeckel, T. P. (2020). Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals from 2017 to 2030. Antibiotics, 9(12), 918.

Tsilingiri, K., & Rescigno, M. (2013). Postbiotics: What else? Beneficial Microbes, 4, 101–107.

Van Boeckel, T. P., Brower, C., Gilbert, M., Grenfell, B. T., Levin, S. A., Robinson, T. P., Teillant, A., & Laxminarayan, R. (2015). Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 112, 5649–5654.

Van Boeckel, T. P., Glennon, E. E., Chen, D., Gilbert, M., Robinson, T. P., Grenfell, B. T., Levin, S. A., Bonhoeffer, S., & Laxminarayan, R. (2017). Reducing antimicrobial use in food animals. Science, 357, 1350–1352.

Van Boeckel, T. P., Pires, J., Silvester, R., Zhao, C., Song, J., Criscuolo, N. G., Gilbert, M., Bonhoeffer, S., & Laxminarayan, R. (2019). Global trends in antimicrobial resistance in animals in low- and middle-income countries. Science, 365(6459), eaaw1944.

Van den Bogaard, A. E., & Stobberingh, E. E. (2020). Epidemiology of resistance to antibiotics: Links between animals and humans. International Journal of Antimicrobial Agents, 55(1), 105113.

Van Limbergen, T., Dewulf, J., Klinkenberg, M., Ducatelle, R., Gelaude, P., Méndez, J., Heinola, K., Papasolomontos, S., Szeleszczuk, P., & Maes, D. (2018). Scoring biosecurity in European conventional broiler production. Poultry Science, 97, 74–83.

Velazquez-Meza, M. E., Galarde-López, M., Carrillo-Quiróz, B., & Alpuche-Aranda, C. M. (2022). Antimicrobial resistance: One Health approach. Veterinary World, 15(3), 743–749.

Vetvicka, V., Vannucci, L., Sima, P., & Richter, J. (2019). Beta-glucan: Supplement or drug? From laboratory to clinical trials. Molecules, 24(7), 1251.

Vittecoq, M., Godreuil, S., Prugnolle, F., Durand, P., Brazier, L., Renaud, N., & Thomas, F. (2016). Antimicrobial resistance in wildlife. Journal of Applied Ecology, 53, 519–529.

Vittecoq, M., Godreuil, S., Prugnolle, F., Durand, P., Brazier, L., Renaud, N., & Thomas, F. (2016). Antimicrobial resistance in wildlife. Eco-Health, 13, 431–445.

Wang, J., Ma, Z. B., Zeng, Z. L., Yang, X. W., Huang, Y., & Liu, J. H. (2017). The role of wildlife (wild birds) in the global transmission of antimicrobial resistance genes. Zoological Research, 38, 55–70.

Wang, Y., Qi, Z., Yan, Z., Ji, N., Yang, X., & Gao, D. (2022). Mesenchymal stem cell immunomodulation: A novel intervention mechanism in cardiovascular disease. Frontiers in Cell and Developmental Biology, 9, 742088.

Weier, N., Nathwani, D., Thursky, K., Tängdén, T., Vlahović-Palčevski, V., Dyar, O., Pulcini, C., & ESGAP Education Working Group. (2021). An international inventory of antimicrobial stewardship training programmes for antimicrobial stewardship teams. Journal of Antimicrobial Chemotherapy, 76, 1633–1640.

Windisch, W., Schedle, K., Plitzner, C., & Kroismayr, A. (2008). Use of phytogenic products as feed additives for swine and poultry. Journal of Animal Science, 86(S14), E140–E148.

Woolhouse, M., Ward, M., van Bunnik, B., & Farrar, J. (2015). Antimicrobial resistance in humans, livestock and the wider environment. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 370(1670), 20140083.

World Health Organization (2017). Integrated surveillance of antimicrobial resistance in foodborne bacteria: Application of a One Health approach. WHO Press. Pp. 1–90.

World Health Organization, United Nations Environment Programme, & World Organisation for Animal Health (2022). One Health joint plan of action (2022–2026): Working together for the health of humans, animals, plants and the environment. World Health Organization. Pp. 1–86.

World Organisation for Animal Health (2022). Strategy on antimicrobial resistance and the prudent use of antimicrobials. WOAH. Pp. 1–12.

Xie, Y., Lu, H., Liu, Y., Hu, G., Lian, S., Liu, J., Pang, S., Zhu, G., & Ding, X. (2025). Unveiling the mechanisms of bacterial resistance and countermeasures. Pathogens, 14(11), 1085.

Xu, X., Biswas, S., Gu, G., Yue, M., & colleagues. (2020). Characterization of multidrug resistance patterns of emerging Salmonella enterica serovar Rissen along the food chain in China. Antibiotics, 9(10), 660.

Yang, Y., Ashworth, A. J., Willett, C., Cook, K., Upadhyay, A., Owens, P. R., Ricke, S. C., & Moore, P. A. (2019). Review of antibiotic resistance, ecology, dissemination, and mitigation in U.S. broiler poultry systems. Frontiers in Microbiology, 10, 2639.

Yang, Y., Iji, P. A., & Choct, M. (2009). Dietary modulation of gut microflora in broiler chickens: A review of the role of six kinds of alternatives to in-feed antibiotics. World’s Poultry Science Journal, 65, 97–114.

Yaqoob, M. U., Wang, G., & Wang, M. (2022). An updated review on probiotics as an alternative to antibiotics in poultry. Animal Bioscience, 35, 1109–1120.

Yassin, A. K., Gong, J., Kelly, P., Lu, G., Guardabassi, L., Wei, L., Han, X., Qiu, H., Price, S., Cheng, D., & Wang, C. (2017). Antimicrobial resistance in clinical Escherichia coli isolates from poultry and livestock, China. PLoS One, 12(9), e0185326.

Yohannes, G., & Tekle, Y. (2018). Review on health care management practices in poultry. Kenkyu Journal of Pharmacy Practice and Health Care, 4, 42–55.

Zhu, Y.-G., Johnson, T. A., Su, J.-Q., Qiao, M., Guo, G.-X., Stedtfeld, R. D., Hashsham, S. A., & Tiedje, J. M. (2013). Diverse and abundant antibiotic resistance genes in Chinese swine farms. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 110, 3435–3440.

Zong, S., Xu, D., Zheng, X., Zaeim, D., Wang, P., Han, J., & Qu, D. (2022). Diversity of antimicrobial resistance in multidrug-resistant Enterobacteriaceae from Chinese broiler and laying farms and characterization of two mcr-1-positive plasmids. Frontiers in Microbiology, 13, 912652.