Influence of the ripening period on the content of macroelements and microelements in craft soft goat cheeses
Abstract
The growing demand for cheeses as components of healthy nutrition is associated with minimal processing of raw milk and the preservation of biologically valuable constituents. These include soft cheeses such as Feta and Chevre , which are pr o duced from unpasteurized goat milk and therefore require assessment of quality and safety based on their mineral composition during ripening. The study was carried out using optical emission spectrometry. It was found that during the ripening of brined Feta cheese, the content of calcium, zinc, and iron did not change, while the levels of phosphorus (by 11.0%), sodium (by 23.5%), potassium (by 13.5%), magnesium (by 36.5%), manganese (by 2.32 times), molybdenum (by 1.95 times), and lead (by 21.4%) decreased. In contrast, by the 30th month of ripening, the content of copper in Feta cheese had increased by 2.04 times and cobalt by 1.54 times. Essential elements in Feta cheese were arranged by concentration as follows: Na > Ca = P > K > Mg > Zn > Fe > Mn = Cu > Mo > Co > Se. The accumulation of heavy metals, in particular aluminum, nickel, chrom i um, cadmium, and mercury, in Feta cheese did not depend on its age and did not reach the maximum permissible concentr a tions. According to their content in Feta cheese, heavy metals were distributed as follows: Al > Pb = Ni > Cr > Cd > Hg > As = Sb. The mineral composition of Chevre cheese, which ripens with the participation of white noble mold, significantly depen d ed on its age. On the 40th day of ripening, Chevre cheese showed an increase in the content of calcium (by 1.57 times), sodium (by 9.4%), potassium (by 22.1%), magnesium (by 1.47 times), iron (by 2.00 times), manganese (by 1.53 times), copper (by 1.52 times), and cobalt (by 1.45 times), against the background of stable levels of phosphorus, zinc, molybdenum, lead, nickel, chromium, and cadmium. Macro- and microelements in Chevre cheese were arranged in descending order of concentration as follows: Na > P > K > Ca > Mg > Zn > Fe > Mn = Cu > Mo > Co > Se. The aluminum content in Chevre cheese increased by 25.5%, and mercury by 38.5% by the 40th day of ripening. Concentrations of heavy metals in Chevre cheese decreased in the following sequence: Al > Pb > Ni > Cr > Cd > Hg > As = Sb. The content of selenium, arsenic, and antimony in both cheeses remained below the detection limit throughout the ripening period. The results of the study demonstrated that soft Feta and Chevre cheeses made from unpasteurized goat milk are characterized by a unique macro- and microelement composition, which confirms their biological value and safety with respect to heavy metal content. The mineral composition of craft goat cheeses Feta and Chevre may serve as one of the components of the criteria for their authenticity and the environmental well-being of the region.References
Abdelmontaleb, H. S., Abdelmeged, D. A., Hamdy, S. M., & Ebid, W. M. A. (2025). Trace metal contamination and health risk assessment in traditional Egyptian soft cheeses: A food safety perspective. Food Safety and Health, 3(4), 693–712.
Al Sidawi, R., Ghambashidze, G., Urushadze, T., & Ploeger, A. (2021). Heavy metal levels in milk and cheese produced in the Kvemo Kartli Region, Georgia. Foods, 10(9), 2234.
Almášiová, S., Toman, R., Pšenková, M., Tančin, V., & Jančo, I. (2024). Toxic elements in sheep milk, whey, and cheese from the environmentally burdened area in Eastern Slovakia and health risk assessment with different scenarios of their consumption. Toxics, 12(7), 467.
Almeida, A. C. O., Rodrigues, P. A., Costa, M. P. D., & Conte-Junior, C. A. (2025). Risk assessment of toxic and potentially toxic metals in raw goat milk: A systematic review of global data and environmental factors. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 24(5), e70268.
Altınsoy, C., Taban, G., Tajdar-Oranj, B., Sadighara, P., & Basaran, B. (2025). Occurrence of potentially toxic metals in Turkish cheese with dietary intake and health risk assessment. Scientific Reports, 15, 33416.
Bae, H. C., Nam, J. H., Renchinkhand, G., Choi, S.-H., & Nam, M. S. (2020). Physicochemical changes during 4 weeks ripening of Camembert cheeses salted with four types of salts. Applied Biological Chemistry, 63, 66.
Bansal, V., & Mishra, S. K. (2020). Reduced-sodium cheeses: Implications of reducing sodium chloride on cheese quality and safety. Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety, 19(2), 733–758.
Bansal, V., & Veena, N. (2024). Understanding the role of pH in cheese manufacturing: General aspects of cheese quality and safety. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 61(1), 16–26.
Basaran, B. (2025). Occurrence of potentially toxic metals detected in milk and dairy products in Türkiye: An assessment in terms of human exposure and health risks. Foods, 14(15), 2561.
Ben Amira, A., Arias, A. A., Fickers, P., Hassouna, M., & Attia, H. (2021). Effect of brine concentration on physico-chemical characteristics, texture, rheological properties and proteolysis level of cheeses produced by an optimized wild cardoon rennet. Journal of Food Science and Technology, 58, 1331–1340.
Capcarova, M., Frigenti, M., Arvay, J., Janco, I., Harangozo, L., Bandlerova, A., Sartoni, M., Guidi, A., Stawarz, R., Formicki, G., Argente, M. J., & Massanyi, P. (2024). Levels of essential and trace elements in Mozzarella available on the Slovak market with the estimation of consumer exposure. Biological Trace Element Research, 202(5), 2357–2366.
Carmona, A., Roudeau, S., & Ortega, R. (2021). Molecular mechanisms of environmental metal neurotoxicity: A focus on the interactions of metals with synapse structure and function. Toxics, 9(9), 198.
Castro-González, N. P., Calderón-Sánchez, F., Castro de Jesús, J., Moreno-Rojas, R., Tamariz-Flores, J. V., Pérez-Sato, M., & Soní-Guillermo, E. (2018). Heavy metals in cow's milk and cheese produced in areas irrigated with waste water in Puebla, Mexico. Food Additives and Contaminants, Part B, Surveillance, 11(1), 33–36.
Chwastowska-Siwiecka, I., Kaca, A., & Miciński, J. (2025a). A comparison of the physicochemical properties and sensory attributes of Ricotta cheeses purchased from retail outlets in Poland. Foods, 14(8), 1413.
Chwastowska-Siwiecka, I., Sikorski, S., Paszczyk, B., & Miciński, J. (2025b). The effect of packaging method and storage time on the physicochemical properties and sensory attributes of goat cheese. Applied Sciences, 15(8), 4458.
Dai, Y.-J., Alsayeqh, A. F., Ali, E. W. E. E., Abdelaziz, A. S., Khalifa, H. A., Mohamed, A. S. M., & Alnakip, M. E. (2023). Heavy metals content in cheese: A study of their dietary intake and health risk assessment. Slovenian Veterinary Research, 60(S25), 397–404.
Davydovych, V., Shevchenko, L., Brovenko, T., Nesterenko, N., Altanova, A., Umanets, R., Rudyk, Y., & Kovalenko, N. (2025a). Microbiological changes in craft hard cheeses from raw goat milk during ripening with the use of mites Acarus siro. Scifood, 19(1), 176–191.
Davydovych, V., Shevchenko, L., Shulyak, S., Nedashkivskyi, V., Semenko, O., Tyshchenko, L., Nikolaienko, M., Altanova, A., & Marchyshyna, Y. (2025b). Influence of aging time on the physicochemical characteristics of craft soft cheeses made from unpasteurized goat's milk. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae et Silviculturae Mendelianae Brunensis, 73(4–5), 243–252.
Davydovych, V., Shevchenko, L., Shulyak, S., Slobodyanyuk, N., Nedashkivskyi, V., Tomchuk, V. Slyva, Y., Nesterenko, N., Sydorenko, O., & Ivaniuta, A. (2025c). The influence of ripening time on the physicochemical characteristics of craft hard goat cheeses. Online Journal of Animal and Feed Research, 15(5), 264–273.
de Oliveira Filho, E. F., Miranda, M., Ferreiro, T., Herrero-Latorre, C., Castro Soares, P., & López-Alonso, M. (2022). Concentrations of essential trace and toxic elements associated with production and manufacturing processes in Galician cheese. Molecules, 27(15), 4938.
Dossou, A. W., Seko Orou, B. M. T., Komagbe, G., Sessou, P., Youssao, A. K. I., Farougou, S., Hounhouigan, J. D., Mahillon, J., Mongbo, R., Poncelet, M., Boutaleb, S., Gobert, S., Madode, Y. E., Azokpota, P., Clinquart, A., Scippo, M.-L., & Douny, C. (2024). Nutritional composition and chemical safety of Wagashi Gassirè cheese sold in the southern Benin markets. Dairy, 5(2), 271–286.
Elafify, M., El-Tahan, M., Sallam, K. I., Hassanien, R., & El-Dien, M. N. (2023). Heavy metal residues in milk and some dairy products with insight into their health risk assessment and the role of Lactobacillus rhamnosus in reducing the lead and cadmium load in cheese. Food Chemistry Advances, 2, 100261.
Grassi, G., & Perna, A. M. (2025). Effect of heavy metal contamination on Caciotta cheese made from buffalo milk. Applied Sciences, 15(22), 11881.
Herrera, T., Pérez-Baltar, A., Ortiz, L., Letón, P., & Miguel, E. (2025). Physico-chemical, microbiological and sensory characteristics of Cabra del Guadarrama cheese and other cheeses from different Spanish autochthonous goat breeds. Foods, 14(13), 2368.
Iakubchak, O., Martynenko, O., Taran, T., Pylypchuk, O., Naumenko, T., Tverezovska, N., Menchynska, A., Stetsyuk, I. (2024). Analysis of the hard rennet cheese microbiota at different stages of the technological process. Potravinarstvo Slovak Journal of Food Sciences, 18, 899–918.
Kaczyński, Ł. K. (2024). Analysis of water activity and gloss of stored goat cheeses according to consumer preferences and tastes. Foods, 13(23), 3789.
Krivohlavek, A., Palac Bešlić, I., Jurak, G., Gavran, M., Mandić Andačić, I., Ivešić, M., Šikić, S., Vitale, K., Štefančić, M., Žuntar, I., Oštarić, F., & Mikulec, N. (2024). Heavy metals and pesticide residues in small farm cheese production in Croatia–Challenge between quality and quantity. Sustainability, 16(4), 1356.
Lisak Jakopović, K., Barukčić Jurina, I., Marušić Radovčić, N., Božanić, R., & Jurinjak Tušek, A. (2023). Reduced sodium in white brined cheese production: Artificial neural network modeling for the prediction of specific properties of brine and cheese during storage. Fermentation, 9(9), 783.
Mara, A., Caredda, M., Addis, M., Sanna, F., Deroma, M., Georgiou, C. A., Langasco, I., Pilo, M. I., Spano, N., & Sanna, G. (2024). Elemental fingerprinting of Pecorino Romano and Pecorino Sardo PDO: Characterization, authentication and nutritional value. Molecules, 29(4), 869.
Martínez-Vérez, A., & Lucini Baquero, C. (2025). Promoting the sale of locally sourced products: Km 0 as a sustainable model for local agriculture and CO2 reduction. Agriculture, 15(15), 1568.
Maruszewska, A., Żwierełło, W., Skórka-Majewicz, M., Baranowska-Bosiacka, I., Wszołek, A., Janda, K., Kulis, D., Kapczuk, P., Chlubek, D., & Gutowska, I. (2021). Modified baby milk-bioelements composition and toxic elements contamination. Molecules, 26(14), 4184.
Massouras, T., Zoidou, E., Baradaki, Z., & Karela, M. (2023). Physicochemical, microbiological and sensory characteristics of white brined cheese ripened and preserved in large-capacity stainless steel tanks. Foods, 12(12), 2332.
Milanković, V., Tasić, T., Leskovac, A., Petrović, S., Mitić, M., Lazarević-Pašti, T., Novković, M., & Potkonjak, N. (2024). Metals on the menu-analyzing the presence, importance, and consequences. Foods, 13(12), 1890.
Moon, N., Heo, S. J., Park, S., Im, H., & Kim, J. H. (2025). The association between maternal dietary intake and the risk of heavy metals in human breast milk in Korea. Toxics, 13(5), 381.
Mostafa, M. A., Halawa, S. M., Abdel Hamid, R. M., & Abdel-Hameid, N. F. (2020). Contamination and health risks of certain heavy metals and trace elements in milk and milk products consumed in province of Monufia, Egypt. Annals of Agricultural Science, Moshtohor, 58(3), 673–682.
Motas, M., Jiménez, S., Oliva, J., Cámara, M. Á., & Pérez-Cárceles, M. D. (2021). Heavy metals and trace elements in human breast milk from industrial/mining and agricultural zones of southeastern Spain. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(17), 9289.
Oliveira Filho, E. F. d., López-Alonso, M., Vieira Marcolino, G., Castro Soares, P., Herrero-Latorre, C., Lopes de Mendonça, C., de Azevedo Costa, N., & Miranda, M. (2023). Factors affecting toxic and essential trace element concentrations in cow’s milk produced in the state of Pernambuco, Brazil. Animals, 13(15), 2465.
Sadvari, V. Y., Shevchenko, L. V., Slobodyanyuk, N. M., Furman, S. V., Lisohurska, D. V., & Lisohurska, O. V. (2024a). Chemical composition of craft hard cheeses from raw goat milk during the ripening process. Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems, 15(4), 666–673.
Sadvari, V. Y., Shevchenko, L. V., Slobodyanyuk, N. M., Tupitska, O. M., Gruntkovskyi, M. S., & Furman, S. V. (2024b). Microbiome of artisanal hard cheeses from raw goat’s milk during ripening. Regulatory Mechanisms in Biosystems, 15(3), 483–489.
Santarcangelo, C., Baldi, A., Ciampaglia, R., Dacrema, M., Di Minno, A., Pizzamiglio, V., Tenore, G. C., & Daglia, M. (2022). Long-aged Parmigiano Reggiano PDO: Trace element determination targeted to health. Foods, 11(2), 172.
Savchenko, O., Grek, O., Skuibida, V., Onopriichuk, O., Pshenychnа, T. (2024). Optimisation of parameters for obtaining milk-plant concentrates. Animal Science and Food Technology, 16(1), 126–140.
Schrenk, D., Bignami, M., Bodin, L., Chipman, J. K., del Mazo, J., Grasl-Kraupp, B., Hogstrand, C., Hoogenboom, L., Leblanc, J., Nebbia, C. S., Nielsen, E., Ntzani, E., Petersen, A., Sand, S., Vleminckx, C., Wallace, H., Alexander, J., Benford, D., & Younes, M. (2020). Update of the risk assessment of nickel in food and drinking water. EFSA Journal, 18(6), e06268.
Shkembi, B., & Huppertz, T. (2021). Calcium absorption from food products: Food matrix effects. Nutrients, 14(1), 180.
Silva, L. F., Sunakozawa, T. N., Monteiro, D. A., Casella, T., Conti, A. C., Todorov, S. D., & Barretto Penna, A. L. (2023). Potential of cheese-associated lactic acid bacteria to metabolize citrate and produce organic acids and acetoin. Metabolites, 13(11), 1134.
Souto, M. R. S., Pimenta, A. M., Catarino, R. I. L., Leal, M. F. C., & Simões, E. T. R. (2025). Heavy metals in milk and dairy products: safety and analysis. Pollutants, 5(3), 29.
Su, C., Gao, Y., Qu, X., Zhou, X., Yang, X., Huang, S., Han, L., Zheng, N., & Wang, J. (2021). The occurrence, pathways, and risk assessment of heavy metals in raw milk from industrial areas in China. Toxics, 9(12), 320.
Thodis, P., Kosma, I. S., Nesseris, K., Badeka, A. V., & Kontominas, M. G. (2023). Evaluation of a new bulk packaging container for the ripening of Feta cheese. Foods, 12(11), 2176.
Ullah, N., Ur Rehman, M., Ahmad, B., Ali, I., Younas, M., Aslam, M. S., Rahman, A. U., Taheri, E., Fatehizadeh, A., & Rezakazemi, M. (2022). Assessment of heavy metals accumulation in agricultural soil, vegetables and associated health risks. PLoS One, 17(6), e0267719.
Wong, C., Roberts, S. M., & Saab, I. N. (2022). Review of regulatory reference values and background levels for heavy metals in the human diet. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 130, 105122.
Zhao, Y., Ren, Y., & Wang, F. (2025). Distribution, sources, and risks of heavy metal contamination in farmland soils surrounding typical industrial areas of South Shanxi Province, China. Toxics, 13(11), 984.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons «Attribution» 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
