Integrative approaches to the diagnosis and treatment of canine post-traumatic stress disorder
Abstract
Canine post-traumatic stress disorder is an increasingly recognized condition within veterinary behavioral medicine, reflecting a growing understanding of how trauma affects the psychological well-being of companion animals. Dogs exposed to acute or chronic stressors, including abuse, abandonment, military deployment, and natural disasters, may develop persistent behavioral disturbances consistent with post-traumatic stress disorder. However, diagnosis remains a significant challenge due to overlapping symptoms with other behavioral disorders, absence of standardized diagnostic criteria, and limited veterinary training in animal mental health. The analysis draws upon peer-reviewed literature published between 2005 and 2024 across databases such as PubMed, Scopus, and CAB Abstracts. Selection criteria prioritized studies on post-traumatic stress disorder-related symptomatology, behavioral diagnostics, pharmacotherapy, and therapeutic interventions, with emphasis on methodological rigor and clinical applicability. While both human-based diagnostic frameworks and canine-specific behavioral assessments are discussed, their translational limitations are critically examined. Clinically, canine post-traumatic stress disorder manifests through hyperarousal, avoidance, aggression, anxiety, and depressive-like behaviors. Diagnosis necessitates comprehensive behavioral histories, validated screening instruments, and exclusion of differential diagnoses, including neurological, endocrine, and pain-related conditions. A c onsistent finding in literature is the essential role of interdisciplinary collaboration, involving veterinarians, behaviorists, psychologists, and professional trainers . Despite this, the veterinary profession continues to lack structured education in behavioral medicine, contributing to underdiagnosis and inconsistent treatment practices. Methodological limitations, including small sample sizes, non-validated outcome measures, and heterogeneity in definitions – further constrain evidence-based advancements. Future priorities include the development of standardized diagnostic criteria, large-scale epidemiological and neurobiological research, and investigation into novel pharmacological agents, including cannabinoid derivatives and neuropeptides. Public and professional education initiatives are also critical to improve recognition and management of post-traumatic stress disorder in dogs. A comprehensive, multidisciplinary, and ethically informed approach is imperative to enhance the quality of life for tra u matized animals and to advance veterinary behavioral science.References
Butler, R., Sargisson, R., & Elliffe, D. (2011). The efficacy of systematic desensitization for treating the separation-related problem behaviour of domestic dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 129(2–4), 136–145.
Conroy, S., & Johnson, G. (2020). Endocrinopathies in veterinary behavior: Clinical presentation and management. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 50(3), 459–474.
Dreschel, N. A. (2010). The effects of fear and anxiety on health and lifespan in pet dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 125(3–4), 157–162.
Dzik, M., Urbanczyk, J., & Kowalski, M. (2018). Impact of traumatic brain injury on dog behavior: A clinical and pathophysiological review. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 59(5), 264–273.
Echeverri, N., & Govendir, M. (2022). Does the selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor (SSRI) fluoxetine modify canine anxiety related behaviour? Veterinary Evidence, 7(4), 585.
Fang, Y., Yuan, C., Xu, Y., Chen, J., Wu, Z., Cao, L., Yi, Z., Hong, W., Wang, Y., Jiang, K., Cui, X., Calabrese, J. R., Gao, K., & Operation Study Team (2011). A pilot study of the efficacy and safety of paroxetine augmented with risperidone, valproate, buspirone, trazodone, or thyroid hormone in adult Chinese patients with treatment-resistant major depression. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 31(5), 638–642.
Freeman, L. M. (2016). The role of animal-assisted interventions in supporting emotional well-being of dogs with post-traumatic stress disorder. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 16, 44–52.
Gruen, M. E., Roe, S. C., Griffith, E., Hamilton, A., Sherman, B. L., & Lascelles, B. D. X. (2021). Use of trazodone to facilitate veterinary visits in dogs with anxiety: A prospective, open-label study. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 258(1), 46–51.
Handlin, L., Jonsson, L., & Andersson, G. (2016). Stress biomarkers in companion animals: An overview of salivary cortisol and behavioral responses to traumatic events. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 19(4), 310–325.
Heinrich, A., & Calder, C. (2024). Separation and confinement anxiety in a golden retriever × standard poodle dog. The Canadian Veterinary Journal, 65(2), 141–145.
Hekman, J. P., Karas, A. Z., & Dreschel, N. A. (2014). Salivary cortisol concentrations and behavior in a population of healthy dogs hospitalized for elective procedures. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 149, 157–165.
Hekman, J. P., Karas, A., & Claire, R. S. (2014). Psychogenic stress in hospitalized dogs: Cross species comparisons, implications for health care, and the challenges of evaluation. Animals, 4(2), 331–347.
Herron, M. E., Shofer, F. S., & Reisner, I. R. (2008). Retrospective evaluation of the effects of diazepam in dogs with anxiety-related behavior problems. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 233(9), 1420–1424.
Hsu, Y., & Serpell, J. A. (2003). Development and validation of a questionnaire for measuring behavior and temperament traits in pet dogs. Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 223(9), 1293–1300.
Hughes, J., Green, A., & Radford, A. (2021). Canine hypothyroidism and its impact on behavior: Diagnostic considerations and treatment approaches. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 41(2), 19–28.
Jones, R. B., & Gosling, S. D. (2005). Behavioral styles and personalities of dogs. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 95(1–2), 101–113.
Kiddie, J. L., Hayes, W. A., Mills, D. S., Neville, R. F., Morton, D. B., & Collins, L. M. (2014). Physiological, physical and behavioural changes in dogs (Canis familiaris) when kennelled: Testing the validity of stress parameters. Physiology and Behavior, 133, 260–271.
Kim, J., & Cicchetti, D. (2010). Longitudinal pathways linking child maltreatment, emotion regulation, peer relations, and psychopathology. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 51(6), 706–716.
Korpivaara, M., Laapas, K., Huhtinen, M., Schöning, B., & Overall, K. (2017). Dexmedetomidine oromucosal gel for noise-associated acute anxiety and fear in dogs: A randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled clinical study. Veterinary Record, 180(13), 356.
Kutsumi, A., Nagasawa, M., Ohta, M., & Ohtani, N. (2012). Importance of puppy training for future behavior of the dog. Journal of Veterinary Medical Science, 74(7), 751–756.
Landsberg, G. M., Hunthausen, W. L., & Ackerman, L. (2013). Behavior problems of the dog and cat. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Locci, A., & Pinna, G. (2019). Social isolation as a promising animal model of PTSD comorbid suicide: Neurosteroids and cannabinoids as possible treatment options. Progress in Neuro-Psychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 92, 243–259.
Lothrop, M., Saylor, R., & Masek, B. (2017). Canine Cushing's syndrome: Diagnosis and management. Journal of Veterinary Internal Medicine, 31(1), 1–11.
Luescher, A. U., & Medlock, R. T. (2009). The effects of training and environmental enrichment on behavior of shelter dogs. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 4(1), 32–43.
Maoz, I., Zubedat, S., Dolev, T., Aga-Mizrachi, S., Bloch, B., Michaeli, Y., Eshed, Y., Grinstein, D., & Avital, A. (2021). Dog training alleviates PTSD symptomatology by emotional and attentional regulation. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1995264.
McMillan, F. D. (2017). Understanding dog behavior: A practical guide to behavior and training. W.B. Saunders Company.
Millot, S., Bruneau, A., & Canaux, G. (2020). Environmental factors and stress-induced behaviors in shelter dogs: A review of management practices. Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science, 23(2), 167–183.
Mills, D. S. (2013). Post-traumatic stress disorder in dogs: Diagnosis and management. Journal of Veterinary Behavior: Clinical Applications and Research, 8(1), 13–18.
O’Haire, M. E., Rodriguez, K. E., Zhuang, R., Jensen, C. L., Miller, E. A., Sabbaghi, A., & Leighton, S. C. (2024). Service dogs for veterans and military members with posttraumatic stress disorder: A nonrandomized controlled trial. JAMA Network Open, 7(5), e2419452.
O’Sullivan, E. N., Jones, B. R., O’Sullivan, K., & Hanlon, A. J. (2008). The management and behavioural history of dogs in a veterinary behaviour clinic. Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 114(3–4), 460–476.
Ogata, N., & Dodman, N. H. (2011). The use of clonidine in the treatment of fear-based behavior problems in dogs: An open trial. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 6(2), 130–137.
Overall, K. L. (2013). Manual of clinical behavioral medicine for dogs and cats. Elsevier Health Sciences.
Pich, E. M. (2017). The neurobiology of stress and its implications for PTSD in animals: A review of recent findings. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 34(5), 51–62.
Podberscek, A. L. (2018). Trauma and its effects in dogs: An overview. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 48(2), 235–249.
Quintana, D. S., Guastella, A. J., & Westbrook, F. (2017). Oxytocin and social behavior in animals: Insights into mechanisms of stress regulation. Biological Psychiatry, 76(1), 50–59.
Rosado, B., García-Belenguer, S., León, M., Chacón, G., Villegas, A., & Palacio, J. (2010). Effect of fluoxetine on blood concentrations of serotonin, cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone in canine aggression. Journal of Veterinary Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 34(5), 430–436.
Schalke, E., Stichnoth, J., & Hellmann, A. (2005). Behavioural effects of long-term kennel housing in dogs: A review. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 1(2), 71–80.
Scott, J., Cole, T., & Marlow, J. (2020). Pain-related behavior in dogs: Clinical and diagnostic considerations. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 38(6), 22–35.
Sherman, B. L., & Mills, D. S. (2008). Canine anxieties and phobias: An update on separation anxiety and noise aversions. Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice, 38(5), 1081–1106.
Sodhi, M., Mahajan, S., & Verma, A. (2018). Clinical use of buspirone and trazodone in veterinary practice. Journal of Small Animal Practice, 59(7), 411–416.
Titulaer, M., Blackwell, E. J., & Casey, R. A. (2013). Risk factors for separation-related distress and feed-related aggression in dogs: A cross-sectional study of dog- and owner-related characteristics. Journal of Veterinary Behavior, 8(3), 154–165.
Vaughn, A. L., Knapp, D. W., & Leach, M. C. (2017). The potential therapeutic effects of cannabinoids in veterinary medicine: A review. Veterinary Journal, 224, 58–63.
Vaughn, J. A., Reinders, C. M., & Seitz, K. R. (2020). Cannabidiol in veterinary medicine: A review of current evidence and therapeutic potential. Veterinary Record, 186(9), 327–334.
Vlerick, L., Peremans, K., Dockx, R., Audenaert, K., Baeken, C., De Spiegeleer, B., & Polis, I. (2018). The influence of subanaesthetic ketamine on regional cerebral blood flow in healthy dogs measured with 99mTc-HMPAO SPECT. PLoS One, 13(12), e0209316.
Watson, F., Rusbridge, C., Packer, R. M., Casey, R. A., Heath, S., & Volk, H. A. (2018). A review of treatment options for behavioural manifestations of clinical anxiety as a comorbidity in dogs with idiopathic epilepsy. The Veterinary Journal, 238, 1–9.
Wilkins, V., Evans, J., Park, C., Dog Aging Project Consortium, Fitzpatrick, A. L., Creevy, K. E., & Ruple, A. (2024). Validation of the shortened version of the canine behavioral assessment and research questionnaire (C-BARQ) using participants from the Dog Aging Project. PLoS One, 19(4), e0299973.
Authors retain copyright and grant the journal right of first publication with the work simultaneously licensed under a Creative Commons «Attribution» 4.0 License that allows others to share the work with an acknowledgement of the work's authorship and initial publication in this journal.
